Pontic
Classification and Dialects Pontic is an Anatolian language of the Indo-European language family spoken in Pontus. The Pontic vocabulary was very influenced by Ancient Greek and by Old Persian; the Greek alphabet was even adopted during the Classical era to write Pontic. Writing System # At the end of a word, sigma is written as such ς''', e.g. Ποντος''' (=Pontus) # The h-sound is written by adding an accent to the following vowel, e.g. ά'ρηνος (=sports - 'ha'renos'') Grammar Nouns Nouns may be feminine or masculine, singular or plural and are declined depending on the used case. Masculine nouns may be changed into the feminine by adding the suffix '''-κα to the word stem instead of the masculine ending -ος, e.g. μιτιλ'ος' -- μιτιλ'κα' (=woman artist) Definiteness In Pontic the definiteness is expressed by the definite pronoun το : The plural doesn't make the difference between the two genders in the plural, e.g. Ήψο τηι λαρη να τηι βφιρι. (=I see '''the' women and the men.) More expressive definiteness forms like the distal and the proximal do not have a special pronoun, but are attached to the word stem following the case ending. The proximal suffix is '-ηγ-''' and the distal one is '-ην-', e.g. Ήψο λαρ'ηγ'αν. (=I am seeing '''this' woman.), Ήψο λαρ'ην'αν. (=I am seeing that woman.) The definite pronoun has to be reduced to 'τ'' if the following noun begins with a vowel or an h-sound and if the pronoun ends with a vowel, e.g. Ήψο 'τ'άγγαρι. (''=I am seeing '''the windows.), but : Ήψο 'τον''' άγγαρον. (=I am seeing the window.) Adjectives The adjectives in Pontic are exactly declined like the nouns. The definite pronoun follows the adjective and respects the same rule for the shorten form of these pronouns with the adjectives like with the nouns. Comparative The comparative is formed by the prefix τα(ρ)-''' (rho is added if the adjective begins with a vowel or an h-sound), e.g. '''τανηος (=new'er''). Comparison is done by the adjective put in the comparative form followed by the compared noun in the ablative case, e.g. Κολια μου αξτ '''τανηα κολιη του. (=My car is '''newer than' your car.) Superlative The superlative is formed by the suffix '-αν-''' to the stem of the adjective in the comparative, e.g. τανη'αν'ος (=new'est''). Comparison in the superlative is done by the adjective in its superlative form followed by the compared noun in the genitive, e.g. Άμ το '''ταλημανος κλαςηι μου. (=I am the tallest of my class.) Verbs Verbs in Pontic are relatively regular compared to the most Indo-European languages. There are only two ambiguities : the verb βηχηι (=to be) and the aorist stem is different from the infinitive-present stem. Notice that in Pontic there are two different conjugation classes : a-type and η-type. Conjugation As conjugation example the verb καρδαι (=to do / to make) is taken for the α-conjugation and άψηι (=to hear) for the η-conjugation. Indicative # The present expresses present actions, e.g. Ήψο λαραν. (='''I am seeing' a woman.) # The present expresses repetitive present actions, e.g. Ξηκο ζιο 'ήψο''' λαρηγαν. (=Everyday '''I see' this woman.) # The present expresses planned future actions, mostly schedules, e.g. Τ'αφτοβουσος 'βφημη''' 15:45'ο. (=The bus '''comes' at 15:45.) # The near past is simply formed by the present tense of the main form with the prefix 'η(ν)-''' (nu is added if the verb begins with a vowel or an h-sound), which is inherited from the Ancient Greek past suffix ε-. # The near past expresses past actions having resulted to some situation or state in the present, e.g. Ηρηκη. (''It has rained. - the raining occurred in the past, but the result is that the streets are now wet'') # The perfect is formed by the aorist stem followed by the perfect endings. The aorist stem is regular for the α-type, since the suffix '-ουσ-' has just to be added to the verb stem, but the aorist stem for the η-type is irregular and has to be learnt. # The perfect expresses past actions enduring to the present moment (there are mostly time adverbials in sentences with the perfect tense), e.g. Ήψουσαμ ξηκαδ λαρηγαν. (='''I have' always seen this woman.) # The perfect may be used in a inferential sense like in Persian and Turkish, e.g. 'Ήψουσαστι''' λαρηγαν. (='''It seems that you saw' this woman.) # The aorist is formed by the aorist stem followed by the aorist endings. # The aorist expresses past actions which are finished and completed, e.g. 'Βφηται''' βιβλιον. (='''I read' a book.) # The imperfect expresses ongoing past actions which are not finished and completed, e.g. Καδ 'βφηξτησι''' τον βιβλιον, ήψουσαι λαραν. (=While '''you were reading' the book, I saw a woman.) # Notice the difference of the verb 'βηχηι''' in the aorist and in the imperfect : in the aorist the state of being is completely finished, so the subject does not exist longer; in the imperfect the state of being is partially finished, so the attribute does no longer qualify the subject, e.g. Πατρος μου βουδι καμαρος. (=My father was doctor. - the verb is in the '''aorist', so the father is dead''), but : Πατρος μου βηχι καμαρος. (=My father was doctor. - the verb is in the '''imperfect', so the father is no longer doctor, he may be pensioner...) # The remote past is formed by the aorist stem followed by the remote past endings. # The remote expresses finished and completed past actions being anterior to another past action, e.g. Αιτης βφιμις, 'βφητουδαι''' βιβλιον. (=Before you came, I had read a book.) # The pluperfect expresses ongoing not finished past actions being anterior to another past action, e.g. Αιτης βφιμις, βφηξτηχημ βιβλιον. (=Before you came, I had been reading a book.) # The pluperfect may be used in an vague sentence (a sentence with the indefinite pronouns somewhere, someone...), e.g. Αλκαδ αλκι ληχι ταν αγαπαν βηχηι ταζιβαναν. (=Sometime someone '''said' that love is the most beautiful thing.) # The near future is simply formed by the present tense of the main form with the prefix 'χα(ν)-''' (nu is added if the verb begins with a vowel or an h-sound), which is inherited from the Persian auxiliary verb xāhan introducing the future tense. # The near future expresses future actions which the speaker is sure of that they are going to happen, e.g. Χαρηκη. (''It is going to rain. - the speaker is sure that it will rain, since it is bad weather, grey clouds are coming...) # The future expresses future actions, e.g. 'Βφηξτοι''' τον βιβλιον. (='''I will read' the book.) # The future perfect is formed by the aorist stem followed by the future perfect endings. # The future perfect expresses future actions being anterior to another future action, e.g. Αιτης βφημας, 'βφητοι''' βιβλιον. (=Before you will come, I will have read a book.) # The future past is simply formed by the future tense of the main form with the prefix η(ν)-''' (nu is added if the verb begins with a vowel or an h-sound), which is inherited from the Ancient Greek past suffix ε-. # The future past expresses future actions in the past, e.g. Ησουσαι, ψη '''ηνήψη ταν λαραν. (=I felt / had the impression that '''he would see' the woman.) # The future past perfect is formed by the aorist stem followed by the future perfect endings. # The future past perfect is simply formed by the future perfect tense of the main form with the prefix 'η(ν)-''' (nu is added if the verb begins with a vowel or an h-sound), which is inherited from the Ancient Greek past suffix ε-. # The future past perfect expresses future actions being anterior to another future action in the past, e.g. Ησουσαι, ψη ηρηψατ, αιτης ηνήψη ταν λαραν. (=I felt / had the impression that '''it would have rained' before he would see the woman.) Subjunctive # The subjunctive is always followed by the verbal introducing particle 'σα'''. # The subjunctive is always formed by the aorist stem followed by the corresponding endings of the different tenses. Syntax Lexicon Example text